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A one-way function that converts input data into a fixed-size string of characters.
A hash function maps data of arbitrary size to fixed-size values. Cryptographic hash functions have key properties: deterministic (same input always produces same output), one-way (cannot reverse to find original input), collision-resistant (finding two inputs with the same hash is computationally infeasible), and avalanche effect (small input change produces completely different hash). Common algorithms: MD5 (128-bit, broken, not secure), SHA-1 (160-bit, deprecated), SHA-256 (256-bit, secure), SHA-512 (512-bit, secure). Used for password storage, data integrity verification, and digital signatures.